What are the most important weaknesses of the environmental optimist position?

The paper gives a genuinely stable scrutinize of the natural confident person position. Nonetheless, it additionally has various significant downsides. The article refers to an Earth-wide temperature boost as the proof of insufficiency of ecological positive thinking. In any case, there is as yet a discussion going on in logical circles concerning the reasons for a worldwide temperature alteration. There is no influential proof that an unnatural weather change is incited by human action. Consequently, refering to a worldwide temperature alteration for instance of insufficiency of natural positive thinking is a hazardous procedure. The subsequent contention used to disprove natural confident person position is figured in a confounding manner. It isn't before the center of article that the real case is made in an understandable way. The case itself is debatable: the article expresses that in the natural self assured person see, there is a constructive relationship between's the economy and the earth; nonetheless, proof demonstrates in any case. The exposition bolsters this announcement by demonstrating negative causal connection between monetary turn of events and contamination. Be that as it may, the article commits a verifiable error by posting China and India as created nations; indeed, they are creating nations with low natural measures and high modern yield, hence they are among biggest supporters of contamination. Commercialization is additionally refered to as a difficult that is getting enhanced as opposed to illuminated by mechanical turn of events. Be that as it may, the paper overlooks the progressing shift from material qualities to post-material qualities (e. g. solidarity, national self-ID, people group, culture and so forth ) that is occurring in numerous European nations and gets on in the U. S. This pattern may be the defining moment in the relations among mankind and condition. In this manner, ecological good faith stays a trustworthy hypothesis.

Self harm free essay sample

I used to be a shaper yet shh, dont tell. Society didnt permit me to communicate my agony that way Todays society will not recognize numerous issues that adolescents manage. Individuals would prefer to have faith in joyfully ever after than face reality, kids are languishing. While it might appear to others that the issues are made up, its genuine to the one managing them ordinary. This enduring can leave changeless scars, and harm (if not ruin) their future. By staying oblivious, self damage turns out to be increasingly normal, however at what cost? On the off chance that instructors and clinical staff were o be progressively taught on self mischief and how to manage it, adolescents and youthful grown-ups would be increasingly happy with requesting help. Getttig free of the generalizations that self mischief is just for consideration permits a more profound comprehension on why somebody would do something like this, so they could get the assistance that is so frantically required. We will compose a custom paper test on Self damage or on the other hand any comparable theme explicitly for you Don't WasteYour Time Recruit WRITER Just 13.90/page There are numerous names and definitions for self damage. The most widely recognized are Self Harm or Deliberate Self Harm. Self Mutilation is utilized by certain analysts and advisors, however is an upsetting title for the individuals who this applys as well. Self harmers take ffense to the word mutilation since what they do isn't to change the presence of their bodies. Self Injury is another normally utilized title. One way that adolescents or youthful grown-ups perceive self mischief is by giving a name to the real demonstration of hurting, for example, cutting or consuming. These names are clear as crystal. Self mischief can be a consequence of any number of mental issue, for example, sadness, bipolar confusion, and numerous character dissorder. It can likewise be utilized as an approach to adapt to numerous issues, for example, passing, issues at home, work, or school. Self hurting discharges synthetic substances in the cerebrum, causing the harmer to feel sheltered, secure, and cheerful. On account of these synthetic compounds, self damage can turn out to be incredibly addictive. Regardless of whether somebody out developed of that period of life, or fixed their issues, oneself hurting would stay as an approach to adapt to any little issue they face. Self harmers here and there hurt themselves from three to thirty years before anybody takes note. Grown-ups who work in training based setting here and there feel awkward managing youthful adolescents who self mischief. Regardless of whether this is a direct result of individual reasons r numbness, self damage is a typical subject in schools. When met for an artical, one educator said that she, couldnt manage the enthusiastic perspective, and couldnt think about any motivation behind why somebody would need to genuinely hurt themselves. Another instructor, at a similar school, expressed that he hadnt had the experience or preparing important to support the youngster. This seemed to make the kid awkward and lament requesting help. Should requesting help truly be such a troublesome undertaking? Schools have classes intended to teach youngsters about how to grow up nd assume responsibility, and manage issues; staff ought to have the alternative to take comparable classes. On the off chance that self mischief was talked about additional in these classes, and suitable adapting techniques were educated, there would be to a lesser extent an issue in schools. Clinical authorities and help with the mending of a self perpetrated wound, they have no obligatory commitment to support the patient. A few clinics have detailed that clinical staff feels that the patient has the right to feel the agony as they intentionally hurt themselves. Medical caretakers will utilize next to zero sedation on the patient, or will treat them last no atter the seriousness of the injury. This conflicts with the Hippocratic Oath, which states l will apply, to serve the wiped out, all measures (that) are required Nurses ought to carry on more expertly and with empathy when managing somebody who is precarious. While I for one accept that self damage ought not be such a commin subject, I can comprehend why it is. Discussing self damage is awkward and ungainly, particularly when it is egotistical. Educators accept that talking about self mischief in school could place the thought in the understudies head, and increment an issue. This is ntrue; on the off chance that somebody needed to self mischief, it is difficult to stop them. The equivalent is valid for the inverse, as somebody who has never at any point viewed self as hurting is exceptionally far-fetched to attempt it Just in light of the fact that they found out about it at school. Companion pressure, be that as it may, is unique. On the off chance that one youngster is self hurting, all things considered, one of their companions is self hurting. Educators have likewise communicated worries that if self mischief was more discussed, understudies would blame self damage so as to leave school, or to depend on schoolwork. Medical clinic staff voices comparable worries about the disgrace encircle self mischief. In the event that it was alright for self mischief to be tossed about in the public eye in such a Jokingly way, more individuals would be in crisis rooms mentioning care for the injuries that they dispensed upon themselves. One medical attendant expressed she accepts those with self exacted wounds have the right to hurt as they ought to of known the outcomes of their activities. Requesting help is here and there unimaginable for the individuals who self mischief. While there is a lot of data on the web, there are barely any individuals in all actuality to converse with. In the event that somebody can not ask an instructor, guide, or specialist for help, their self mischief could turn out to be logically more awful

Follow live SDG Academys Meet our Leaders Series COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY - SIPA Admissions Blog

Follow live SDG Academys Meet our Leaders Series COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY - SIPA Admissions Blog Jeffrey Sachs was co-chair of the International Commission on Education for Sustainable Development Practice, which recommended the MPA in Development Practice (MPA-DP) be created. SIPA’s MPA-DP program is a new approach to development education. The program trains practitioners to design, implement, and manage integrated approaches to sustainable development. Drawing on the extraordinary educational and research facilities of Columbia University, the MPA-DP emphasizes practical knowledge, skills, and opportunities in the field. “We are not spectators of development. We are participants. We learn, we reflect and we act to bring about positive change.” Prof. Jeff Sachs on the MPA-DP Program Tune in today, October 6 at 9:00 a.m. EST for a live webinar session with Professor Jeffrey Sachs from Columbia University! Ask questions, get answers in real-time! Hear about the topics he cares about, his personal journey into the field of sustainable development, and how you can get involved to make a difference! Send us questions beforehand at sdgacademy@unsdsn.org to make sure they’re answered! Join the live event by clicking here: http://bit.ly/MoLOct2016 Event number: 959 977 985 Event password: Leaders2030 Jeffrey D. Sachs is a world-renowned economics professor, leader in sustainable development, senior UN advisor, bestselling author, and syndicated columnist. Professor Sachs is the Director of the UN Sustainable Development Solutions Network (SDSN). He serves as Director of the Earth Institute’s Center for Sustainable Development, Quetelet Professor of Sustainable Development, and Professor of Health Policy and Management at Columbia University. He is Special Advisor to United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon on the Millennium Development Goals, and held the same position under former Secretary-General Kofi Annan. He is the co-founder and director of the Millennium Villages Project. Sachs is also one of the Secretary-General’s MDG Advocates, and a Commissioner of the ITU/UNESCO Broadband Commission for Development. Professor Sachs is widely considered to be one of the world’s leading experts on sustainable economic development and the fight against poverty. His work on ending poverty, promoting economic growth, fighting hunger and disease, and promoting sustainable environmental practices, has taken him to more than 125 countries with more than 90 percent of the world’s population. For more than a quarter century he has advised dozens of heads of state and governments on economic strategy, in the Americas, Europe, Asia, Africa, and the Middle East. He has authored three New York Times bestsellers in the past 7 years: The End of Poverty, Common Wealth: Economics for a Crowded Planet, and The Price of Civilization. His most recent book is To Move the World: JFK’s Quest for Peace.

Seguro médico PPO o HMO y uso en otros estados EE.UU.

En cumplimiento con ACA, tambià ©n conocido como Obamacare, casi todas las personas que residen habitualmente en EE.UU. deben tener seguro mà ©dico. A la hora de comprarlo surge la duda de si es mejor contratar un HMO o un PPO y de si ese seguro cubre accidentes y enfermedades cuando se viaja a otros estados. La importancia de elegir un buen seguro mà ©dico y de tener la cobertura geogrà ¡fica que se necesita es importante no solo desde el punto de vista de la salud sino tambià ©n del econà ³mico. Segà ºn un informe reciente de la Kaiser Family Foundation, uno de cada cuatro estadounidenses entre 18 y 65 aà ±os tiene problemas para pagar las facturas mà ©dicas, a pesar de tener seguro mà ©dico y serà ­a la principal causa de bancarrota en el paà ­s. Este artà ­culo se propone ayudar a evitar esos graves problemas explicando quà © es un HMO y un PPO, las ventajas de cada uno y, finalmente, quà © ocurre si se viaja a otro estado se produce un accidente o surge una enfermedad y se debe buscar asistencia mà ©dica. Tambià ©n aspira despejar la duda de quà © hay que hacer si se tiene un PPO o un HMO pero se desea recibir tratamiento en un hospital en otro estado o consultar con un especialista para obtener una segunda opinià ³n en un estado diferente al de residencia. Finalmente, tambià ©n se alude a cuà ¡les son las opciones para seguros mà ©dicos para migrantes indocumentados y turistas extranjeros.  ¿Quà © significa HMO y PPO en seguro mà ©dico de EE.UU.? Las aseguradoras mà ©dicas ofrecen variaciones de diferentes tipos de contratacià ³n de seguros. Las principales son el las Organizaciones de mantenimiento de la salud (HMO, por sus siglas en inglà ©s) o las Organizaciones de proveedores preferidos (PPO, por sus siglas en inglà ©s). Las aseguradoras contratan servicios profesionales con mà ©dicos, enfermeras, laboratorios, hospitales, farmacias, etc., y HMO y PPO se refiere al tipo de contrato con el que el asegurado va a relacionarse con esos profesionales o servicios sanitarios. El HMO o el PPO puede ser proporcionado por la empresa para la que se trabaja o comprado directamente por el asegurado, ya que en muchos casos las empresas no dan seguro mà ©dico a sus empleados. Sin embargo, entre las que sà ­ lo dan, frecuentemente brindan a los empleados la posibilidad de elegir entre diferentes tipos de HMO y PPO. Informacià ³n bà ¡sica sobre los HMO La contratacià ³n de un HMO da derecho a elegir mà ©dico de atencià ³n primaria, que puede ser un internista o un doctor de familia y tambià ©n a un pediatra. En algunos casos, a un ginecà ³logo dentro de la red de profesionales contratados , conocida en inglà ©s como network. Esos mà ©dicos son el primer punto de contacto con el paciente y se les conoce por el nombre PPC, que son sus siglas en inglà ©s . Son lo que se conoce como PPC, por sus siglas en inglà ©s. Eso significa que en caso de enfermedad o consulta primero hay que cerrar una cita con el PPC. El doctor decidirà ¡ si se necesitan anà ¡lisis, rayos, otros procedimientos o ver a un mà ©dico especialista dentro de la red de servicios mà ©dicos dentro de ese HMO. Si ese es el caso, darà ¡ un volante o referencia, que en inglà ©s se conoce como referral. Si se acude a un profesional o laboratorio fuera de la red, se tendrà ¡ que pagar todo o casi todo el gasto ocasionado por esa visita. Salvo en casos muy concretos, como que la red de del HMO no tenga quien realice un determinado procedimiento, tà ©cnica o carezca de un especialista. En este punto es recomendable leer y tener claras todas las condiciones particulares de cada contrato de seguro mà ©dico. En caso de emergencia se puede ir a cualquier mà ©dico. Pero leer bien y entender claramente lo que en cada caso se considera una emergencia porque si el seguro no lo considera asà ­, el paciente acabarà ¡ pagando por el servicio. En cuanto a los pagos, hay que hacer frente al co-pago cada vez que se va al mà ©dico, servicios extra, ingresos hospitalarios o medicinas. Està ¡n todos especificados en el contrato. Informacià ³n bà ¡sica para entender quà © es un PPO En el PPO no se necesita tener un mà ©dico de cabecera, lo que en el HMO se conoce como PPC. El paciente puede ir a cualquier doctor dentro de la red de profesionales preferidos. Tampoco se necesita un volante o referencia para ir a un especialista dentro de la red. La excepcià ³n suelen ser procedimientos caros, como los MRI. Ademà ¡s, algunos doctores especialistas tienen por costumbre no aceptar pacientes que previamente no han pasado por un mà ©dico de atencià ³n primaria. Ese es un punto que hay que aclarar al cerrar una cita. Si sà ³lo se va a mà ©dicos y hospitales dentro de la red de profesionales preferidos del PPO, sà ³lo se pagarà ¡ el deducible anual (annual deductible, en inglà ©s) y, dependiendo de cada contrato, tambià ©n puede haber un co-pago. El deducible anual es la cantidad de dinero que el paciente debe gastar en servicios mà ©dicos por aà ±o antes de que el seguro comience a actuar. Puede haber uno por persona y otro familiar. Por ejemplo, si el deducible anual es de $250 eso quiere decir que hasta que el paciente haya gastado esa cantidad por aà ±o el seguro no comenzarà ¡ a pagar. Ademà ¡s, si se decide ir a un servicio mà ©dico que no està ¡ incluido en la red de profesionales preferidos – lo que se conoce con el nombre de out-of-network–, deberà ¡ pagarse la factura al completo y luego reclamar al PPO para que regrese parte de ese importe. El porcentaje varà ­a de contrato a contrato. Por ejemplo, si se acude a un doctor fuera de la red de proveedores del PPO y à ©ste cobra $100 por una consulta, el paciente deberà ¡ pagarlos en su totalidad. Posteriormente, si no ha gastado el deducible anual, ahà ­ se queda la cosa. Pero si ya se ha utilizado, entonces se reclama al PPO por un porcentaje fijado previamente en el contrato. Por ejemplo, si fuera un 50 por ciento, eso significarà ­a que la aseguradora regresarà ­a $50 pero de los otros $50 el à ºnico responsable serà ­a el paciente.  ¿Es mejor un HMO o un PPO? Eso depende de las circunstancias de cada asegurado y de las de sus familias. En general puede decirse que el PPO ofrece mà ¡s libertad a la hora de elegir, pero resulta mà ¡s caro. En todo caso, antes de contratar o de utilizar un servicio mà ©dico es muy importante entender bien las particularidades del seguro mà ©dico. No todos los HMO son iguales ni tampoco todos los PPO ofrecen lo mismo. POS, indocumentados y turistas Hay otras posibilidades menos conocidas, como los POS, o plan punto de servicio. Es una mezcla entre un HMO y un PPO ya que los pacientes con este tipo de seguro mà ©dico deben designar a un mà ©dico de cabecera pero pueden visitar profesionales sanitarios fuera de su red. Por otra parte, los migrantes indocumentados no pueden beneficiarse de Obamacare, por lo tanto, no pueden comprar seguro mà ©dico por medio de ese programa. Sin embargo, sà ­ pueden comprar un seguro mà ©dico pero es muy importante asegurarse de que cubren en caso de haber un problema y teniendo en cuenta la situacià ³n migratoria. Ademà ¡s, algunas municipalidades brindan este servicio como, por ejemplo, Los Angeles o San Francisco, a travà ©s del programa Healthy. En todo caso, siempre se tiene derecho a atencià ³n mà ©dica de urgencia, sin importar el estatus legal. Por à ºltimo, como informacià ³n importante para turistas destacar que es importante que viajen a los Estados Unido con seguro mà ©dico, ya que el costo de la medicina en Estados Unidos es muy alto. Si se causa un gasto al sistema pà ºblico como Medicaid esto puede dar lugar a la cancelacià ³n de la visa por considerarse una carga pà ºblica o a su no renovacià ³n. Este punto salta muchas veces en relacià ³n a nacimientos de nià ±os de turistas en los Estados Unidos cuando los padres no han pagado los gastos del alumbramiento. HMO y PPO en otros estados En cumplimiento de Obamacare, todas las personas que tienen en EE.UU. un HMO o un PPO pueden recibir en estados diferentes a los de su residencia habitual tratamientos por emergencias que pongan en riesgo la vida. La à ºnica excepcià ³n es el estado de Hawaii donde esta regla no aplica. Eso no quiere decir que el seguro va a cubrir todo el gasto, sino que ademà ¡s deberà ¡ mirarse las caracterà ­sticas de cada seguro y si se recibià ³ el tratamiento para la emergencia en un hospital dentro de la red o fuera de la red. Antes de viajar a otro estado diferente por razones de trabajo o vacaciones es fundamental saber claramente quà © considera emergencia el seguro de cada uno porque puede que el seguro no la califique como tal y se acaba pagando por el servicio mà ©dico. En el caso de consultas rutinarias, ingresos en hospitales especializados en enfermedades graves o consultas mà ©dicas para obtener una segunda opinià ³n realizadas en estados distintos al del lugar de residencia habitual, los PPO y HMO no cubren ningà ºn gasto. En el pasado podà ­a encontrarse grandes aseguradoras que sà ­ lo hacà ­an, pero ya no es asà ­. Por lo tanto, si se quiere estar asegurado en todo el territorio nacional de los EE.UU. mà ¡s allà ¡ de las emergencias es necesario contratar otro seguro mà ©dico, lo cual puede hacerse de dos formas: cobertura adicional, conocida en inglà ©s como supplemental coveragecompra de un seguro catastrà ³fico, catastrophic coverage en inglà ©s Este es un artà ­culo informativo. No es asesorà ­a legal. Puntos Clave: HMO, PPO y seguro mà ©dico en otros estados HMO: debe elegirse mà ©dico de cabecera y pediatra, Necesarias las referrals para ir a especialista. Menos libertad que PPO pero mà ¡s barato.PPO: se puede ir a mà ©dicos fuera de la red. No son necesarias las referrals. Mà ¡s libertad para elegir mà ©dico pero mà ¡s caro que HMO.Cobertura estados diferentes a los de residencia habitual: solamente emergencias con riesgo para la vida. Hawaii siempre excluido.Seguro para otros estados para viajes, por trabajo, segunda opinià ³n mà ©dica, etc: comprar seguro adicional o catastrà ³fico. Este es un artà ­culo informativo. No es asesorà ­a legal.

Understanding The Behaviour Of Organisation - 2137 Words

Task3 Understanding the behaviour of organisation in their environment Business organisations do operate in the environment that has a strong influence on the way business operate and conduct their business transactions. The environment that business organisations face is both internal and external and both needs strategy and policy to dealt with. Thus, business organisation must find a way to deal with it. External environment is the macro environment that business organisations interact with daily bases. To operate successful business must be able to respond effectively to factors that have influence on them. Therefore, the success depends on the ability to adopt with the environment in which business operates. 3.1. Explain 3 different types of market structure (perfect competition, monopoly, oligopoly and regulations of competition: determine pricing and output decision of ASDA business. 1. Perfect competition: . Perfect market is a hypothetical market where economists believe competition reaches its best level, but in reality, there no such perfect competition. It is an economic theory that is used as a base to compare with other market structures. According to an economic online, a market which, exhibits the following characteristics is said to be a perfect competitive market. Under perfect competition, business organisations are price takers not price makers but there is no such perfect competition, customer are not bound to a single supplier, butShow MoreRelatedPeople in Organisations955 Words   |  4 Pagesto define the concept of Organisational Behaviour and identify the most important areas of the topic which considerably impact on organisational efficiency and effectiveness. Nowadays, due to the rapidly changing business environment, perceiving organisational behaviour is recognised as one of the most significant aspects of all business operations (Robbins and Judge, 2010). 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Different people perceive different things about the same situation. People’s behavior is based on their perception of what reality is, not on reality itself. It is our personal perception of that reality which shapes and directs our behaviour and not some objective understanding of external reality. ForRead MoreKey Actions Of Ethical Leaders1167 Words   |  5 Pagesthe above traits, ethical leaders also engage in specific actions as part of their leadership. Below are some of the things an ethical leader should focus on in order to improve his or her ethical behaviour and build more trust with the subordinates. Creating I-Thou relationships For the organisation to work, positive relationships are required. Ethical leadership focuses on relationships that rely on respect and trust, even when there isn’t always agreement. It’s important to trust each member

Symposium by Plato Free Essays

PERSONS OF THE DIALOGUE Apollodorus: the narrator of the symposium Aristodemus: the person who told Apollodorus about the symposium Glaucon: the unknown man Phaedrus: the person who suggested that everyone has to make a speech about love Pausanias: Agathon’s Lover Eryximachus: a doctor/physician Aristophanes: comedic playwright Agathon: a tragedian Socrates: the protagonist of the symposium Alcibiades: Socrates’ admirer THE HOUSE OF AGATHON (416 BC.) Apollodorus was chased and asked by an unknown man (probably the unknown man is Glaucon) about what happened to the banquet. That man, asked him about the speeches regarding the concept of Love or the god Eros, which were basically based on the accounts of Socrates, and all the other speakers who were present in the symposium. We will write a custom essay sample on Symposium by Plato or any similar topic only for you Order Now The symposium occurred in Agathon’s house, this is when a celebration was held in honor for the victory of Agathon. Apollodorus started his discourse about love with his companion based on the dialogues and accounts of Aristodemus. ARISTODEMUS’ conversation with APOLLODORUS According to Aristodemus, he met Socrates fresh from bath, and asked him whether he was going to the banquet or not. But Socrates said that he was not invited; but he said â€Å"To the feast of inferior men the good unbidden go†. Aristodemus received a warm welcome from Agathon. Agathon asked him about Socrates, he asked if Socartes will come. Aristodemus then was asked to find Socrates and bring him to the place, but he said that, â€Å"I believe that he will soon appear†, and as expected, all of a sudden, when the supper was on its halfway, Socrates entered. The highlight of the banquet is hard drinking. But, Pausanias said if they could drink with at least, least effect. â€Å"How can the drinking be made easiest?† They should avoid drinking so hard. Which in turn, they all agreed that the drinking would be voluntary. All of a sudden, Exryximachus proposed that all of them would have to give their speeches regarding their insights about love to honor and praise their god, Eros. THE SPEECHES ABOUT EROS PHAEDRUS’ SPEECH Phaedrus stated that Eros is an almighty God, a noble one and considered as the eldest among all of the gods. He explained his proposition based of the account of Hesiod, that, once there was a chaos that brought the Earth and Eros to existence. He also stated that Eros is matter of self-sacrifice of the lover for his beloved, that, the lover is ready to sacrifice himself and die for his beloved. In order to prove things right, he had mentioned several notable events which may serve as proofs that love is sacrifice, he associated the concept of love by taking the accounts on happened in the story of â€Å"The Iliad† and â€Å"Eurydice†, that, the lovers died for their beloved ones. PAUSANIAS’ SPEECH He stated that Eros and Aphrodite were inseparable, and in line with this, he also spoke that there were two goddesses, because if there is not Phaedrus’ statement about love is enough. He told to his comrades that Eros should get the praises he deserves. According to him, there were to gods; the Heavenly Aphrodite and the Common Aphrodite. The Heavenly Aphrodite is whom he called the elder one, who has no mother and Uranus’ daughter. While, the Common Aphrodite is whom he called the younger, and the offspring of Zeus and Dione. He emphasized that, the action varies depending upon its manner of performance, he said that it could either be good or evil as per what has been performed. He also pointed out that the Common Aphrodite is way far different from the Heavenly Aphrodite. That, those people who believed in and affected by the love of the Common Aphrodite appears to become the most foolish, ill-mannered, and senseless beings, because of they are much more concern solely to accomplish only the end but not the noble end. On the other hand, those beings who are greatly affected and inspired by the Heavenly Aphrodite would be the more greathearted, courageous and intelligent in nature, because she is clean, divine and has no wantonness within. ERYXIMACHUS’ SPEECH According to Eryximachus who is a physician that time, the concept of love could somehow be associated with the use of his own art, which is his art of medicine. He also emphasized that, in being unlike or having the concept of opposites, love could be in its outmost presence and achieve harmony within. He emphasized his concept of achieving harmony, that, harmony could be achieved if it is in the state of being discord. â€Å"Harmony is discord.†    He also said that love is good, love is accompanied by temperance and justice, and love is the source of our harmonious life and happiness. ARISTOPHANES’ SPEECH The comedian Aristophanes commenced his speech in a way of telling an ancient story about the origins of the mankind. He stated that, in the beginning, originally, there are not one, not two, but three sexes present in mankind. There is the feminine one (woman), the masculine one (man), and the union of the two, which is also called as â€Å"Androgynous†. He explained the physical characteristics of what we called Man. According to him which is based on a tale, â€Å"His back and sides forming a circle; and he had four hands and four feet, one head with two faces, looking opposite ways, set on a round neck and precisely alike; also four ears, two privy members, and the remainder to correspond†. He also pondered on the abilities of this creature, that, this creature â€Å"could walk upright as men now do, backwards or forwards as he pleased, and he could also roll over and over at a great pace, turning on his four hands and four feet, eight in all, like tumblers going over and over with their legs in the air; this was when he wanted to run fast†. Aristophanes associated the description of the three sexes to the earth, the moon and the sun. He said that, the original formulation of all of these is that, man is the offspring of the sun, woman is the offspring of earth and the united two which is the man-woman creature is believed as the offspring of the moon. According to the tale of Otus and Ephialtes. Zeus thought of a clever way of making this matter organized. He then said that, man will continue experiencing life, but in separate ways, so that they could live independently. In order to make things happen, Zeus used his lightning to strike and split them into two. The concept of love here occurs within the creatures themselves, they will part their ways and try to seek for their other halves for the sake of wholeness. But, Zeus dared, that, if they remain in their state of insolence and impertinence, he would split them again would have to live with a single leg. In line with this, he also said that they must praise the god Eros for he had helped them a lot in all aspects of human nature. AGATHON’S SPEECH According to him, he has a different way of acknowledging the god Eros, for he was really sincere when it comes to praising Eros. He has a different overview when it comes to Eros. His idea of the god Eros was contradictory to the fact of Phaedrus who claimed that Eros as the eldest among all gods, but for him, he considered Eros as the youngest among all gods, a youthful one forever, and Eros is the most blessed and the fairest. Eros is also tender, that, in order to understand the essence of his tenderness somebody has to rely on Homer. Eros tenderness was able to touch the hearts and souls of the gods and men and make his home and space in it. Eros was able to focus on the moral and virtuous character of love where courage, justice, temperance and wisdom were fully acknowledged. SOCRATES’ SPEECH Socrates’ speech is based on the account of a Diotima wise woman from Mantineia. She is his instructress in understanding what love really is. He went to Diotima because of his ignorance and consciousness, that, he wants to know the mysteries of love. According to Diotima of Mantineia, Love is not good as it is and is not fair at all. She said that Eros appears to be a great god for those who are not aware. Diotima stated that Eros is just a great spirit or also known as a daimon, wherein he mediates between the mortal and the divine. For Diotima, gods are not philosophers or wisdom seekers, because gods are wise by nature. She said that Eros is also a lover of wisdom, for he is a love of the beautiful. Love is expressed through procreation, but this procreation must be beautiful. Why beautiful? Because beautiful is considered to be harmonious, while ugliness is considered to be the inharmonious. However, with respect to divinity, this procreation should only be undertaken between a union of a man and a woman. Diotima said that, love is immortality, because, for the people, generation is something that is immortal and eternal, and by that people would desire for immortality coupled with goodness. Both the body and the soul could be pregnant. People who are pregnant in the body concerns of having blessed offspring in the future. People who are pregnant in the soul concerns of having eagerness to have wisdom and virtue. He said that his words could be called as an â€Å"encomium of love†. (The company made a huge applause after the speech of Socrates. Then, suddenly Alcibiades’ voice was heard, he was so intoxicated and kept on shouting and roaring â€Å"Where is Agathon? Lead me to Agathon.† He came then with an intent to crown Agathon, even if he was in a great state of intoxication. He also crowned Socrates. He joined the conversation as permitted by Eryximachus, and said that he would only speak about the truth.) ALCIBIADES SPEAKS Alcibiades expressed how he praises Socrates. According to Alcibiades, Socrates is like the busts of Silenus, and elsewhere like Marsyas the satyr, because of he had a face that looks like a satyr. (Socrates is a satyr and a siren.) He stated the resemblance of Socrates to Marsyas. He said that both of them were so influencial but of different ways. In the case of Marsyas, he uses instrument and make melodies or music to captivate the souls of men. While, on the other hand, a Socratic way of making influence uses only himself and his words to charm and captivate the souls of men. For him, Marsyas and Socrates are worthy to listen to because they are believable compared to other speakers that he had heard of. He said that he was in love with Socrates and yet stated that they have had a great understanding and he tried to seduce Socrates but it did not work on his favor. He also emphasized â€Å"In vino veritas† which typically means, â€Å"In wine, truth†. He ended his talk saying to Agathon that â€Å"Be not deceived by him; learn from me and take warning, and do not be a fool and learn by experience, as the proverb says.† The end. PHILOSOPHICAL REVIEW Symposium by Plato profoundly introduced the diverse overview of the speakers about the concept of love in the form of making a speech. This dialogue embodied the maxim of the philosophical interpretations with respect to Eros. The propositions of each speakers vividly described that love has no distinct sense and has no specifications at all, because of its in-depth meaning. Each speech unfolds hidden truths on how love may be absorbed, which in turn, brought the readers to the extent of questioning which one is believable or plausible. The storyline also highlighted that, â€Å"In wine, truth† or â€Å"In vino veritas†, because the symposium itself explains that through a hard way of drinking of wine, shocking revelations and truths about love were pronounced and suddenly came out to be some sort primary basis in understanding the underlying meaning of love itself. This account of Plato tries to widen the readers understanding of what love is, its origins, its competing ends, and so on. There are so many sentiments which may trigger the mind through understanding the in-depth meaning of love. It could be the concept of love by Phaedrus, which entails that Love is a matter of sacrifice, it could be of Pausanias’ account which describes that love could be heavenly or common, it could also be by Eryximachus’ dialogue which explains love could be associated to the art of medicine, it could also be of Aristophanes, who once told a tale about the origins, it could be Agathon’s speech which explains that Eros is the most blessed and the fairest god, or on the dialogue of the exceptional Socrates, who explains that love is beautiful. In a nutshell, Symposium by Plato explains love in different ways and helps in understanding the grasps of the complexity of love. And, it showcases variety of aphorisms in different accounts which could be absorbed and reflected on. REFERENCES PLATO. DIALOGUES OF SOCRATES. S.l.: ARCTURUS PUBLISHING, 2018. How to cite Symposium by Plato, Papers

Helicopter vs Airplane free essay sample

Today, I would like to present to you on the topic, the comparison between helicopters and an airplanes. As we all know, both are an extrodinary aviation miracle. A hundred years back, who would have though of the possibility of a man flying? Thanks to the Wright Brothers, this dream is now a living marvel. Wether it is a helicopter or a plane, they both share the same purpose of making our life easier. Besides that, they both uses the same basic principle of flight which are aerofoil and the Archimedes’ principle. Although they are not entirely the same in the they apply these theories but in a way they are similar. Whether fixed or rotating the wing achieves lift due to its shape. The upper side is rounded causing passing air to accelerate. This makes the air less dense creating a low pressure compared to air below the wing which generates the lift. On top of that, both helicopters and airplanes are widely use in many different fields. Comercial, military, search and rescue, and law enforcement to name a few. Moreover, these two aviation machines are very costly in terms of maintenance, finance as well as development. Although, in the future, statistics shows that the aviation industry will grow drastically. This shows that both are vital elements in the everlasting growth of our future. On the contrary, or the differences if you may, is that a airplanes generate lift by moving through the air while helicopters rotate their wings allowing them to generate lift without forward motion. To fly, helicopters have a propellers while airplanes have an engine that provides thrust to push it through the air, which forces air over the wings and create lift that allows the plane to climb. Helicopters have a main propellor blades that turn about a vertical axis. This large rotor provides the lift and forward motion to the helicopter. They also has a smaller rotor at the tail that counter acts the torsional forces created by the torque of the main rotor. Apart from that, the disadvantage of helicopters are speed and capacity. Speed is limited by the retreating wing or blade. Forward airspeed and blade speed combined cannot exceed the speed of sound. Capacity is limited due to the energy required in rotating the blades and its resultant drag. Fixed wing aircrafts on the other hand, require less power for lift as they take advantage of forward momentum. This means that they are capable of greater speed, higher load capacity and improved fuel consumption. This will then result to a much cheaper operating costs compared to a helicopter. Although, obviously because of its ability to hover helicopters have the advantage of landing in small spaces and hover in the event cargo or personnel need to be hoisted or inserted. This definitely could not be done by an airplane. Because of its dependant on the lift generated by an enough flow of air at a certain velocity, airplanes need a long runway. Meaning to say, it is not as versatile as a helicopter when it comes to landing and take off. Other minor differences between a helicopter and an airplane are airplanes can travel a longer distance in a single flight compared to a helicopter. Airplanes travel in a greater speed and they actually glide trough the air which make them fly smoother and capable of achieving great distances. On the other hand, helicopters do not travel as fast and as smooth. Besides that, most helicopters do not have wheels, they have these frames instead to support their body. Whereas most airplanes have wheels unless they are amphibians or they are in the cold regions where they land on snow. All in all, I personally in love with both of this aviation marvels. Despite their differences they both share the same most important aspect of all. To serve and help us in our life. I think the differences are the things that made them special in their own way. Hope that you enjoy the presentation and thank you for your time. HELICOPTER VS AIRCRAFT Let me expose you all with the differences and similarities between the airplane and helicopter. Airplanes and helicopters are both important forms of air travel, but there are great differences between them. The first major difference between airplanes and helicopters is their shape and design. Airplanes, for example, have long; slender bodies with wings while helicopters have round bodies and propellers rather than wings. Another difference between airplanes and helicopters is their speed. Airplanes can travel extremely fast. Helicopters, on the other hand, are much slower than airplanes. A plane must have some type of foward motion to gain airflow over the wings to thus create lift. Where as the helicopter can simply rotate its main rotor (wings) in a circle to create lift, without needing to have a foward motion. But of course with these differences in designs, they both have different positives and negatives. Such as a chopper can hover, and plane cannot (generally). Although a plane can often fly faster, and higher than a chopper. So depending on your role requirements, either choppers or planes would be better suited. A plane must have some type of foward motion to gain airflow over the wings to thus create lift. Where as the helicopter can simply rotate its main rotor (wings) in a circle to create lift, without needing to have a foward motion. But of course with these differences in designs, they both have different positives and negatives. Such as a chopper can hover, and plane cannot (generally). Although a plane can often fly faster, and higher than a chopper. So depending on your role requirements, either choppers or planes would be better suited. Helicopter is rotary wings aircraft where wings will rotate while aeroplane is fixed wings aircraft where wings are fixed. Helicopter can hover and can fly backward direction and can make vertical take off. While aeroplane can not hover amp; fly back ward, and generally they are horizontal take off machine (Some vertical take off model are also available). Helicopter can not fly at very high speed and at very high altitude compare to aeroplane. For same take off weight amp; to cover same distance fuel consumption of helicopter is much higher than aeroplane. Aeroplane need a smooth terrain (Runway) to land and take off, while helicopter can land and take off in rough terrain also. Due to higher number of rotating parts vibration in helicopter is much higher in helicopter compare to aeroplane. Seat Ejection is possible in fighter aeroplane which is not possible in helicopter. An airplane has to always move forward in order t keep air flowing over the wings, which is what keeps it in the air. A helicopter can hover, meaning it doesnt need to always be moving forward, because its blades move, keeping the air flowing over them. Fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters both generate lift by using one or more engines to drive a wing or wings (a rotor blade is nothing more nor less than a specialised type of wing) through the air. When the amount of lift generated overcomes the force due to gravity acting on the aircraft (helicopters are aircraft too! ) the aircraft flies. Because the wings on a fixed-wing aircraft are fixed the whole aircraft has to move through the air with the wing whereas a helicopters rotor derives its lift independently of the motion of the the rest of the airframe. And that is the key difference and explains why a helicopter can hover but a fixed-wing aircraft cannot. Airplanes and helicopters is their direction of takeoff and flight. Airplanes take off horizontally and can move in a forward direction only. They need a lot of space for takeoff and landing. Airplanes regularly carry several hundred passengers. Helicopters, however, take off vertically and can move in any direction. Helicopters require a very small takeoff or landing space, and most helicopters carry only two to five passengers. Because of the great differences between airplanes and helicopters, each is used for a specific purpose. Airplanes and helicopters, therefore, are both important forms of air travel. The similarities are they are both operated and fly in the air,both of them cause noises,its convenient for people to go long distances in them and they are very expensive. In conclusion, both have their own advantages and disadvantages and both plane and helicopters have its own pros and cons, depending on your role requirements.

Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs free essay sample

Once upon a time in a great castle, a Princes daughter grew up happy and contented, in spite of a jealous stepmother. She was very pretty, with blue eyes and long black hair. Her skin was delicate and fair, and so she was called Snow White. Everyone was quite sure she would become very beautiful. Though her stepmother was a wicked woman, she too was very beautiful, and the magic mirror told her this every day, whenever she asked it. Mirror, mirror on the wall, who is the loveliest lady in the land? The reply was always; You are, your Majesty, until the dreadfulNight came, but the servant did not return. Snow White, alone in the dark forest, began to cry bitterly. She thought she could feel terrible eyes spying on her, and she heard strange sounds and rustlings that made her heart thump. At last, overcome by tiredness, she fell asleep curled under a tree. We will write a custom essay sample on Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Snow White slept fitfully, wakening from time to time with a start and staring into the darkness round her. Several times, she thought she felt something, or somebody touch her as she slept. At last, dawn woke the forest to the song of the birds, and Snow White too, awoke.A whole world was stirring to life and the little girl was glad to see how silly her fears had been. However, the thick trees were like a wall round her, and as she tried to find out where she was, she came upon a path. She walked along it, hopefully. On she walked till she came to a clearing. There stood a strange cottage, with a tiny door, tiny windows and a tiny chimney pot. Everything about the cottage was much tinier than it ought to be. Snow White pushed the door open. l wonder who lives here? she said to herself, peeping round the kitchen. What tiny plates!And spoons! There must be seven of them, the tables laid for seven people. Upstairs was a bedroom with seven neat little beds. Going back to the kitchen, Snow White had an idea. Ill make them something to eat. When they come home, theyll be glad to find a meal ready. Towards dusk, seven tiny men marched homewards singing. But when they opened the door, to their surprise they found a bowl of hot steaming soup on the table, and the whole house spick and span. Upstairs was Snow White, fast asleep on one of the beds. The chief dwarf prodded her gently. But they warned Snow White not to open the door to strangers. Meanwhile, the servant had returned to the castle, with the heart of a roe deer. He gave it to the cruel stepmother, telling her it belonged to Snow White, so that he could claim the reward. Highly pleased, the stepmother turned again to the magic mirror. But her hopes were dashed, for the mirror replied: The loveliest in the land is still Snow White, who lives in the seven dwarfs cottage, down in the forest. The stepmother was beside herself with rage. She must die! She must die! she screamed.

Biography of King George VI, Britain’s Unexpected King

Biography of King George VI, Britain’s Unexpected King King George VI (born Prince Albert Frederick Arthur George; December 14, 1895–February 6, 1952) was King of the United Kingdom, Head of the British Commonwealth, and the last Emperor of India. He succeeded to the throne after his older brother, Edward VIII, abdicated. He is the father of Queen Elizabeth II, Britain’s longest-ruling monarch. Fast Facts: King George VI Given Name:  Albert Frederick Arthur GeorgeKnown For: Served as King of the United Kingdom from 1936–1952, following the abdication of his brother Edward VIII. His reign saw Britains victory in World War II as well as the end of the British Empire.Born: December 14, 1895 in Norfolk, EnglandDied: February 6, 1952 in Norfolk, EnglandSpouse: Queen Elizabeth, nee Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon (m. 1923-1952)Children: Princess Elizabeth, later Queen Elizabeth II (b. 1926), Princess Margaret (1930-2002) Early Life George VI, who was known as Albert until he became king, was born to Prince George, then Duke of York (later King George V) and his wife, Mary of Teck. He was their second son, following the birth of his brother Edward the previous year. His birthday was also the 34th anniversary of the death of his great-grandfather, Prince Albert. To honor the prince- and in deference to Queen Victoria, who was reportedly upset upon hearing the news of the prince’s birth on that day- the family named the child Albert, after the late Prince Consort. Among family, Albert was known as â€Å"Bertie,† like his grandfather the Prince of Wales (later Edward VII). As a boy, Albert suffered from several health problems, including bowed knees and chronic stomach ailments. He also developed the stammer that he would struggle with for the rest of his life. When Albert was fourteen, he began attending the Royal Naval College as a naval cadet; like many royal second sons, he anticipated a military career. Although he struggled in his early studies, he graduated in his training and progressed to training on board a ship in 1913. Duke of York In 1910, Alberts father became King George V, making Albert second in line for the throne behind his brother Edward, who quickly developed a reputation for his hard-partying ways. Albert, meanwhile, had just embarked on his full-fledged naval career when World War I broke out. Although he went through an emergency appendectomy in 1913, he recovered and rejoined the war effort, eventually being mentioned in dispatches for his action during the Battle of Jutland, the largest single naval battle of the war. Albert suffered another medical setback when he had to have surgery for an ulcer in 1917, but he eventually transferred to the Royal Air Force and became the first royal to be a fully certified pilot. He was posted to France in the waning days of the war, and in 1919, after the war had ended, he became a full-fledged RAF pilot and was promoted to squadron leader. He was made Duke of York in 1920, at which time he began taking on more public duties, although his ongoing struggle with his stammer made public speaking difficult. That same year, Albert crossed paths with Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon, daughter of the Earl and Countess of Strathmore and Kinghorne, for the first time since they were children. He fell in love with her immediately, but the path to marriage wasn’t quite so smooth. She rejected his marriage proposal twice, in 1921 and 1922, because she wasn’t sure she wanted to make the sacrifices that being a royal would require. By 1923, however, she agreed, and the couple were married on April 26, 1923. Their daughters Elizabeth and Margaret were born in 1926 and 1930, respectively. Ascent to the Throne Albert and Elizabeth lived a relatively quiet life by choice. Albert’s public speaking requirements led him to hire speech therapist Lionel Logue, whose breathing and vocal techniques helped the prince to improve his public speaking abilities. Albert and Logues work together was depicted in the Oscar-winning film The Kings Speech in 2010. Albert supported the improvement of working conditions, served as president of the Industrial Welfare Society, and ran a series of summer camps for boys from a wide range of socio-economic backgrounds from 1921 until the outbreak of World War II. In 1936, George V died and Albert’s brother Edward became King Edward VIII. Controversy immediately erupted, as Edward wanted to marry Wallis Simpson, an American who had divorced her first husband and was in the process of divorcing her second husband. The subsequent constitutional crisis was only resolved when Edward chose to abdicate rather than give up Wallis. He did so on December 10, 1936. Since Edward was unmarried and childless, Albert became king, taking the regnal name George VI in honor of his father. He was crowned in Westminster Abbey on May 12, 1937- the date previously slated for Edward VIII’s coronation. Almost immediately, King George VI was pulled into the controversy over the U.K.’s handling of Hitler’s aggression on the European mainland. Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain continued to pursue an appeasement policy, and the king was constitutionally bound to support him. In early 1939, the king and queen visited Canada, making George VI the first British monarch to visit. On the same trip, they visited the United States and formed a rapport with President Franklin D. Roosevelt that would help solidify the American-British ties in the coming years. World War II On September 3, 1939, after Germany failed to respond to an ultimatum issued over their invasion of Poland, the United Kingdom, along with its European allies, declared war on Germany. In spite of constant air raids by the German Luftwaffe, the royal family remained in official residence in London throughout World War II, although they actually split their time between Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle. In 1940, Winston Churchill took over as prime minister. Although he and King George VI had a rocky relationship at first, they soon developed an excellent rapport that helped bring the U.K. through the war years. The king and queen made many visits and public appearances to keep up morale, and the monarchy hit a high in popularity. The war came to an end in 1945, and the following year, London hosted the first assembly of the United Nations, with George VI making an opening address. Later Years and Legacy In the years after the war, King George VI turned to matters of his own empire, which entered a decline in influence and power on the world stage. India and Pakistan declared independence in 1947, and Ireland left the Commonwealth altogether in 1948. When India officially became a republic, George VI took on a new title: Head of the Commonwealth. King George VI had suffered health problems all his life, and the combination of stress from the war and his heavy smoking habits led to a series of major health scares in the late 1940s. He developed lung cancer, as well as arteriosclerosis and other diseases, and underwent multiple surgeries. Princess Elizabeth, his heir, took on more and more of his duties, although she was recently married and starting a family with her husband, Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. On the morning February 6, 1952, King George VI was found in his room at Sandringham, having died in his sleep. His daughter Elizabeth immediately became Queen Elizabeth II at the age of 25; she is the longest reigning queen regnant of all time. He is buried in St. George’s Chapel, and the remains of his wife Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother and his younger daughter Margaret have since been interred alongside him. King George VI was never supposed to be king, but he reigned over the later years of Britain as an imperial power and saw the nation through one of its most dangerous eras. Sources Bradford, Sarah. The Reluctant King: The Life and Reign of George VI, 1895 – 1952. St. Martin’s Press, 1990.â€Å"George VI.† Biography, 2 April 2014, https://www.biography.com/people/george-vi-9308937.Howarth, Patrick. George VI: A New Biography. Hutchinson, 1987.Smith, Sally Bedell. Elizabeth the Queen: The Life of a Modern Monarch. Random House, 2012.

Diary Entries (About a Brit Lit Character) Essay

Diary Entries (About a Brit Lit Character) - Essay Example Fortunately, it does not work with me. It is very clear to me that there is something lurking beneath that casual hospitality. Well then, let me attend to other matters my friend. It has been hours since I went up here to my favorite room at the mezzanine. Yours, H. 23th April 635 My Dear Friend, It has been almost a month since I last shared my reflections with you. I am holding a cameo medallion that I gave to my Queen during our wedding. Oh and yes! The ring! That wonderful piece of intaglio jewelry that she loved very much. The stones were embedded beyond the gold’s surface. I cannot forget the look on her face when I gave the pieces to her. I wonder what’s happening between us now. She seems distant. Anyway, I need to go as it seems I lost track of time. I hear the morning sound of the campanile from the nearby chapel already Yours, H. 1st May 635 My Dear Friend, My dear Queen is very happy with my consent to invite my brother over. She is talking about having a pa lace ball, to coincide with our anniversary. She is thinking of ordering some fresco paintings for the rotunda, the palace hall where she intends to accept the majority of the guests. Also, she mentioned about using a new type of wares called majolica. She mentioned how colorful the earthenwares are, and she wants the guests to be served in a new fashion.

Analyze, using examples, the argument that an informal economy will Essay

Analyze, using examples, the argument that an informal economy will always exist in any society in which there is a formal economy - Essay Example cerned about the informal economy running in parallel with the formal economy - with the legal activities escaping the tax net, and the illegal activities hoodwinking the law enforcement agencies. Hence one comes to accept the fact that in any society with a formal economy, the informal economy exists too. â€Å"The hidden or informal economy is usually taken to mean any undeclared economic activity† (Grabiner, 2000). An economic activity remains undeclared either for the purpose of evasion of taxes or because it is prohibited by law. Informal economy is thus a burden on the state, since the major part of it is illegal and even when it is legal, it leads to tax evasion or undue claims by the so-called unemployed on social security system like unemployment / medical / other benefits. Undisclosed income or black money may be put to fuel further growth of informal activities, because it cannot be openly used for any legal purpose. construction sector, consulting in professional services sector, seasonal labour in farm sector etc., all paid for by cash-in-hand. To the extent these legal activities go unreported to the authorities, they form a part of the informal economy. Coming to the illegal activities, which obviously will not be reported to the authorities, they may be financed by the undeclared profits of legal businesses (Grabiner, 2000, p.1). Trading in smuggled goods / prohibited substances like drugs, gun running, trafficking, exhibition of prohibited cinematographic works (pornography) etc. are common examples of illegal and criminal activities in the informal economy. To add to this, there are many devious ways by which black money is generated, exploiting the loopholes in the framework of legal economic activity. For example, under-invoicing of imports to cheat on customs duties, or over-invoicing of exports to claim export subsidies, are two of the common sources of generation of black money. To facilitate completion of such transactions, further

Transformational Leadership Model Analysis

Transformational Leadership Model Analysis Leadership is the process of influencing other people to behave in preferred ways to accomplish organizational objectives (David H. Holt and Karren W. Wigginton). In the 1970s, leadership theories approaching effectiveness was dominant, for example, path-goal theory (House Mitchell, 1974). Since the late 1980s, new style of leadership theory emerged, as charismatic leadership (Conger Kanungo, 1998; Hunt, Boal, Dodge, 1999), visionary leadership (Sashkin, 1988), and also transformational leadership (Avolio, Bass, Jung, 1999). However, much of the leadership research has concentrated on characteristics and specific effects of charismatic and transformational leadership (Bass 1985; Kanungo1990; Sashkin 1988; Tichy and Devanna 1990). Burns was the first person introducing the concept of transforming leadership in his book Leadership. The version of transformational leadership theory was formulated later by Bass (Bass, 1985, 1996). He defined transformational leadership in terms of the leaders effect on followers by analyzing the behavior used in the process. The employees can be motivated by taking difficult objectives, and achieve beyond initial expectation. This paper will have a thorough analysis on the Transformational Leadership theory. The first part will conduct a general description of the theory, followed by the review over the theory development in Part two. Part three and Part Four will be the conceptual and Empirical support for the transformational Leadership theory. Transformational Leadership Theory Traditional leadership theories emphasized rational processes; rather, theories of transformational and charismatic leadership emphasize more on emotions and values. James MacGregor Burns (1978) was the first author to contrast transforming and transactional leadership. Transformational leadership stresses achievement of higher collective purpose, of common mission and vision. Transformational leadership includes individualized consideration, intellectual stimulation, charisma, and inspirational motivation. Transactional leadership includes contingent reward behavior and management by exceptions. Burns defined the concept of transforming leadership as, a relationship of mutual stimulation and elevation that converts followers into leaders and may convert leaders into moral agentsoccurs when one or more persons engage with others in such a way that leaders and followers raise one another to higher levels of motivation and morality He proposed that the transforming leaders motivate the followers to make them be able to achieve significant goals in the work, which finally lead to values promotion in both parties. Under the theory of Burns, Bass developed more. He put Burns concept into one way process as transformational leadership where the leader transforms followers. It is different from the theory of Burns which indicate a two-way process that leaders and followers perform beyond expectations. Bass add the transformational style of leadership that Burns did not pay attention to. The leadership style incorporate social changes in the process of leaders performance which empirically more effective. According to Bass (Bass 1985, 1996; Avolio et al. 1995), transformational leaders motivate their followers by inspiring them, offering challenges, and encouraging individual development. Studies reviewed by Bass support that transformational and transactional leadership can be very distinctive. There is also evidence that transformational leadership is positively related to subordinate satisfaction, motivation, and performance (Lowe et al. 1996). According to the research centre for leadership studies of University of Exeter (Bolden, R. et. al,2003), Bass transformational leaders may: expand a followers portfolio of needs transform a followers self-interest increase the confidence of followers elevate followers expectations heighten the value of the leaders intended outcomes for the follower encourage behavioral change motivate others to higher levels of personal achievement Simply put forward, transformational leaders can 1) Increase subordinates awareness of well-performance of their tasks, 2) Increase subordinates awareness of needs for personal development, and goal-fulfillment. 3) Increase subordinates awareness of working in the spirit of making good for organization rather than focus on personal benefit. On the contribution theory base of Burns and Bass, Tichy and Devanna (1986) built further on transformational leadership in organizational contexts. They described the nature of transformational as a behavioral process capable of being learned. And the characteristics of transformational leaders are indentified as courageous, trustworthy, value-driven, visionary, continuous learning, and able to deal with complexity. To make the theory more operational, Bass and Avolio (1994) proposed five dimensions of transformational leadership, idealized behaviors, idealized motivation, intellectual stimulation and individualized consideration and idealized attitude. The detailed behaviors of the five dimensions are showed in Table. Transformational Leadership Style Leader Behaviors 2) Consider the moral consequences of decisions 3) risk-sharing 4) Trust subordinates 2) Enthusiastic about job 3) Confident that goals will be achieved 4) Take a stand on controversial issues 2) look at problems from different angles 3) Suggest new ways to complete assignments 4) Encourage innovative thinking 2) Consider individuals different needs and abilities 3) Help to develop strengths 4) Promote self development 2) Act in ways that get respect from others 3) Display a sense of competence 4) Confident that obstacles will be overcome Conceptual Pitfalls The version of transformational leadership theory that has generated the most interest was contributed by Bass and his colleagues (Bass, 1985, 1996). Bass model of transformational leadership has been accepted by scholars and practitioners that organizations can encourage employees to perform beyond expectations. Despite a set of theory base in transformational leadership, concerns have been raised about the way in which the dimensions of the model have been defined (Avolio Yammarino, 2002; Hunt Conger, 1999; Shamir et al., 1993). Yukl (1999) proposed that it was not clearly differentiated between transformational and charismatic leadership. The influence processes for transformational and transactional leadership are blurring, and have not been explored systematically. The identification of types of transformational leadership behaviors seems to be based mostly on a factor analysis; therefore the theoretical base for differentiating among the behaviors is not explained. While every type of transformational leadership behavior includes a lot of components, it makes the definition more ambiguous. Leadership is viewed as a key determinant of organizational effectiveness; however, the leader behaviors that ultimately influence organizational performance are seldom described in detail. The organizational processes have not received sufficient attention in mainstream theories of transformational leadership. Moreover, stated by Yukl (1999), the theory provides insufficient identification of negative effects. It does not clearly identify any situation where transformational leadership is detrimental. However, some other researchers have noted that. For example, transformational leadership theory, putting more emphasis on the role of leadership to motivate employees, is biased at the expense of most of employees (Stephens et al., 1995). Porter and Bigley (1997) proposed that if members of an organization are influenced by different leaders with competing visions, the result will be increased role ambiguity and role conflict (Yukl, 1995). By establishing strong influence in the subunit, the leaders can achieve organizational goals more effectively, at the same time, arise competition among different subunits under different leaders. In that case, tasks that need cooperation among different unit will suffer. This is particularly harmful when inter-unit cooperation is necessary to achieve org anizational objectives, and further result a decline in organizational effectiveness. Empirical support for the transformational leadership model The above issues concerning the weaknesses of Transformational leadership research meant that empirical research can provide evidence if necessary. Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) is the most used measure of transformational leadership research developed by Bass. By using MLQ, the data can provide mixed support for the differentiation of the components of the transformational model, which is the most controversy issue that has not achieved the general agreement. From a wide range of settings, the positive effects of transformational leadership on several organizational outcomes have been proved. (Dumdum, Lowe, Avolio, 2002; Judge Piccolo, 2004; Lowe, Kroeck, Sivasubramaniam, 1996) while conflicting evidence has been reported concerning the factor structure of the model, and very strong relationships have been reported among the leadership factors (Avolio et al., 1999). Interestingly, by using the MLQ-1, report found the five-factor model of transformational leadership (including charisma, intellectual stimulation, individualized consideration, contingent reward, and management-by-exception) was fit properly to the data, however, a two-factor model(active and passive leadership factor) was also fit properly to the data (Bycio et al. 1995). Avolio (1999) proposed several alternate conceptual models of the factor structure underlying the MLQ-5X. Carless (1998) examined the MLQ-5X, and found that a hierarchical model (charisma, individualized consideration, and intellectual stimulation) representing facets of a second-order construct which called transformational leadership was fit well according to the data. Carless suggested that the MLQ-5X does not assess separate transformational leadership behaviors, but measures a single, hierarchical construct of transformational leadership (Alannah E. 2004). Researchers are using a number of tactics instead when examining transformational leadership. Some researchers used a reduced set of items to measure transformational leadership model (e.g., Tejeda et al., 2001). This strategy has been driven by empirical results but fail to be explained by strong theoretical rationale. Other authors, such as Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Moorman, and Fetter (1990), have developed their own measures of transformational and transactional leadership. While these three approaches may all prove useful in some situations, we argue that it is important to adopt a theoretically driven approach when evaluating the subdimensions of transformational leadership. As a result, we re-examine the theoretical model developed by Bass (1985) to identify five subdimensions of transformational leadership that will demonstrate discriminant validity with each other and with outcomes.

Confessions of a Shopaholic

Existential consumption and irrational desire Richard Elliott University of Oxford, Oxford, UK If marketing is truly the â€Å"ultimate social practice of postmodern consumer culture† (Firat, 1993) then it carries the heavy burden of â€Å"determining the conditions and meanings of life for the future† (Firat and Venkatesh, 1993). Certainly, social theory is now focusing on consumption as playing a central role in the way the social world is constructed, and it can be argued that marketing is too important just to be left to marketers as it plays a â€Å"key role in giving meaning to life through consumption† (van Raaij, 1993).Marketing has been criticized from within as being a â€Å"technique† without moral regard for the consequences of its actions, and there is no shortage of critics of its most public face: advertising. This paper aims at identifying some of the issues raised by postmodern and poststructuralist accounts of consumption. In particular, it is argued that consumption can be conceptualized from cultural, social and psychological perspectives as being a prime site for the negotiation of conflicting themes of freedom and control.It is proposed here that in postmodernity the consumption of symbolic meaning, particularly through the use of advertising as a cultural commodity, provides the individual with the opportunity to construct, maintain and communicate identity and social meanings. This use of consumption as a resource for meaning creation and social transactions is a process that involves the making of choices that are sufficiently important to be considered as existential.This is not an attempt at rehabilitating the practice of marketing, but is intended to demonstrate that the consumer is far from being a passive victim but is an active agent in the construction of meaning. In part this can be seen as a response to Olander’s call for â€Å"consumer research for the consumer’s sake† (Olander, 1993), but also as providing theoretical underpinning for concepts such as â€Å"advertising literacy† (Ritson and Elliott, 1995a) which attempt to build new socially located and meaning-based-models of advertising.Exploring some consumption dialectics As a heuristic device to help unpack some of the complexity of the consumption experience, five dialectics will be explored and their (sometimes polar) tensions used as analytical frames for reviewing competing discourses on the meanings of consumption: My thanks to Geoff Easton and Rolland Munro for discussions which improved the ideas in this paper, some of which have been explored in Elliott and Ritson (1995). Existential consumption and irrational desire 285 European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 1 No. 3/4, 1997, pp. 285-296.  © MCB University Press, 0309-0566 European Journal of Marketing 31,3/4 286 (1) the material versus the symbolic; (2) the social versus the self; (3) desire versus satisfaction; (4) rationality versus irrationality; and (5) creativity versus constraint. It is acknowledged that binary oppositions are essentially structuralist and thus in danger of betraying the complexity of the poststructuralist accounts they are being used to elucidate here, and that they are inevitably reductionist.However, postmodernism is riven with contradictions, even Baudrillard’s account of postmodernity is itself a totalizing â€Å"meta-narrative† (Hebdige, 1989), so we must learn to participate in the â€Å"tolerance of incompatible alternatives† (Lyotard, 1984) and â€Å"the juxtaposition of opposites and contradictions† (Foster, 1983) called for by postmodern theorists in the hope that it can develop our understanding(s) of the meaning(s) of these complex ideas.As a heuristic device, these bipolar oppositions should not be read as posited structures but merely as aids to coming to grips with the sometimes mind-numbing interrelations between what are often incommensurable co ncepts. The binary opposition is false and should, of course, be allowed to â€Å"melt into air† (Berman, 1983). The material versus the symbolic As soon as a product’s ability to satisfy mere physical need is transcended, then we enter the realm of the symbolic and it is symbolic meaning that is used in the search for the meaning of existence (Fromm, 1976).Central to postmodern theories of consumption is the proposition that consumers no longer consume products for their material utilities but consume the symbolic meaning of those products as portrayed in their images; products in fact become commodity signs (Baudrillard, 1981). â€Å"The real consumer becomes a consumer of illusions† (Debord, 1977) and â€Å"the ad-dict buys images not things† (Taylor and Saarinen, 1994). This semiotic perspective of products as symbols raises difficult questions about the location of cultural meaning.The term symbol itself can relate to the product that carries meaning or to the meaning it carries, and the interpretation of meaning is a complex product of what is contained in the representation and what the individual brings to the representation (LeVine, 1984). Symbolism can be analysed semiotically by examination of the system of signs and what they signify. It has been realized, however, that this leads to an infinite regress as one sign leads to another without there ever being anything â€Å"real† outside the system.All meaning is socially constructed and there is no essential external reference point, so ultimately â€Å"There is nothing outside the text† (Derrida, 1977). To complicate matters further, symbolic interpretation is essentially non-rational improvisation that does not obey the codes of language but operates at the unconscious level (Sperber, 1975). A Jungian analysis goes even further and suggests that the full significance of a symbol cannot be Existential grasped in purely intellectual terms, if it becomes fully definable in rational consumption and terms it is no longer a true symbol (Storr, 1973). rrational desire But even for the sign-dependent human being things are never purely material nor purely meaningful, there is always a mediated relation between matter and meaning. This mediated process operates through the materiality 287 of language as a dynamic force in the transformation of an indeterminate range of human possibilities into a restricted moral economy of meaning, in which we are simultaneously authors of and authored by the language with which we try to communicate (Pfohl, 1992).This relationship is partly a function of the individual’s ability to understand and control the interaction between the material and the symbolic, and material objects themselves are always in transit and their meaning is likewise on a trajectory (Appadurai, 1986). The social versus the self The functions of the symbolic meanings of products operate in two directions, outward in constructing the social world – social-symbolism – and inward towards constructing our self-identity: self-symbolism (Elliott, 1995).Consumption of the symbolic meaning of products is a social process that helps make visible and stable the basic categories of a culture which are under constant change, and consumption choices â€Å"become a vital source of the culture of the moment† (Douglas and Isherwood, 1978). The meanings of consumer goods are grounded in their social context and the demand for goods derives more from their role in cultural practices rather than from the satisfaction of simple human needs (Douglas and Isherwood, 1978). Consumer goods, then, are more than just objects of economic exchange, â€Å"they are goods to think with, goods to speak with† (Fiske, 1989).Consumption as a cultural practice is one way of participating in social life and may be an important element in cementing social relationships, while the whole system of consumption is an unco nscious expression of the existing social structure through a seductive process which pushes the purchasing impulse until it reaches the â€Å"limits of economic potential† (Baudrillard, 1988). It is within this social context that the individual uses consumer goods and the consumption process as the materials with which to construct and maintain an identity, form relationships and frame psychological events (Lunt and Livingstone, 1992).The self-symbolic role of material goods is long established in social anthropology and the individual’s attachment to objects may be a culturally universal function which symbolizes security, expresses the self-concept and signifies connection to society (Wallendorf and Arnould, 1988). Consumer goods are not only used to construct our self-identity but are also used by others to make inferences about us that guide their behaviour towards us (Dittmar, 1992). But now in postmodernity we are able to use consumer products to become any of our â€Å"possible selves† (Markus and Nurius, 1986) inEuropean Journal of Marketing 31,3/4 288 which we utilize consumer goods to construct pastiches of others we have been exposed to via the media or more directly. â€Å"In cyberspace, I can change myself as easily as I change my clothes† (Taylor and Saarinen, 1994). But the choices as to which self to construct and present are attended by the possibility of social consequences which may be very negative for example, a failure of a young person to utilize symbolic capital in the form of knowledge of the appropriate meaning of advertising can lead to rejection by the peer group (O’Donohoe, 1994).Desire versus satisfaction The symbolic gratification promised by advertising manages to recode a commodity as a desirable psycho-ideological sign (Wernick, 1991), and the operation of advertising at the unconscious level is driven by the search for an imaginary self which motivates the individual with desire for cohere nce and meaning (Lacan, 1977).Advertising feeds the desire to achieve the unobtainable unity of the self with destabilized meanings (Featherstone, 1991), images which separate commodities from their original use and offer the possibility to reconstruct the self by purchasing the symbolic meaning of goods and constructing a â€Å"DIY self† (Bauman, 1991). For as Williamson (1978) points out, â€Å"The conscious chosen meaning in most people’s lives comes from what they consume†, and this is energized by the attachment of bodily desire to symbolic meaning where the inchoate needs of the pre-linguistic self are channelled into language.Central to Lacanian theory is the mirror-phase, where the child recognizes itself in a mirror and assumes an image through a transformation from the imaginary to the symbolic. The symbolic for Lacan is linked with absence, in that symbols represent a world of people and things that are not there. The â€Å"real† can only be ap proached through the symbolic medium of language, yet language itself contains the contradictions and fragmentations of gender, power and meaning (Kristeva, 1980).The symbolic focus of much promotional activity in postmodernity is desire, and for Lacan desire exists in the gap between language and the unconscious. â€Å"Desire does not desire satisfaction. To the contrary desire desires desire. The reason images are so desirable is that they never satisfy† (Taylor and Saarinen, 1994). Postmodern consumption is inextricably linked with aspects of sexuality, both conscious and unconscious, as it promises the satisfaction of previously taboo desires through imagery and representations (Mort, 1988).These desires are constructed through the symbolic linkage between consumption and the human body (Kellner, 1992), and operate in large part through the consumption imagery with which we are surrounded and which makes even mundane consumer actions, such as looking in shop windows, high ly significant in our psychic lives (Bocock, 1993). Thus meaning is created through a search for links between identity (the social) and the self and the pursuit of sexual satisfaction through consumption, both of which are doomed to failure.Rationality versus irrationality Existential This postmodern fragmentation of the experience of self has been termed the consumption and condition of â€Å"multiphrenia† by Gergen (1991), who points out that the new irrational desire opportunities for exercise of choice are almost unlimited and so bring with them a â€Å"vertigo of the valued† where the expansion of â€Å"wants† reduces our choice to â€Å"want not†, a multiplicity of competing values and beliefs which make â€Å"the very 289 idea of rational choice become meaningless†.The mass media, and advertising in particular, are responsible for an â€Å"expansion of inadequacy† which is encouraged by a barrage of new criteria for self-evaluation. Cushman (1990) argues that we are in an era of the â€Å"empty self† in which alienation and loss of community can be solved by the â€Å"lifestyle† solution in which the consumer constructs a â€Å"self † by purchasing and â€Å"ingesting† products featured in advertising, a behaviour which can be construed as, at best, of limited rationality.In the Lacanian perspective there is a stress on the individual subject as being fragmented and incoherent, and this leads to the framing of the consumer as simultaneously both rational and irrational, able to both consume and reject what is being consumed, to desire and yet consume without satisfaction (Nava, 1991). â€Å"Identity becomes infinitely plastic in a play of images that knows no end. Consistency is no longer a virtue but becomes a vice; integration is limitation† (Taylor and Saarinen, 1994).The consumption of meaning, even the meaning of supposedly unambiguous television soap operas, is always am bivalent and contradictory (Ang, 1985), and the modes of rationality which operate in the space between the unconscious world of the imaginary and the symbolic world of language are little understood as they are constrained by the â€Å"despotic signifying semiologies† which limit the possibilities for other forms of semiotic systems and other forms of rationality (Deleuze and Guattari, 1983).The conceptualization of other modes of (ir)rationality is paralleled by the recent development in social cognition of the theory of motivated choice, which emphasizes the role of emotion in decision processes (Forgas, 1992; Kunda, 1990). Motivated choice is where judgement is driven by an emotional desire to arrive at a particular conclusion, where biased information search and reasoning processes are used â€Å"to arrive at those conclusions they want to arrive at† (Kunda, 1990).From these perspectives, cool, rational, informationprocessing choice is at least uncommon, and may i n fact be very rare, for â€Å"the real, the really real, is irrational, that reason builds upon irrationalities† (de Unamuno, 1962). Creativity versus constraint The dialectic between freedom and control in the consumption domain is typified by the influence of advertising. The ability of consumers to resist the influence of advertising and thereby exercise freedom has been minimized by the Marxist analysis of its central role in the maintenance of capitalism (Leiss etEuropean Journal of Marketing 31,3/4 290 al. , 1990) which operates through the creation of â€Å"ideological hegemony† (Goldman, 1992). Marxists have also portrayed advertising as a â€Å"magic system† (Williams, 1980) of magical inducements and satisfactions which validates consumption, if only in fantasy, by association with social and personal meanings and thus transforms goods which had rational use-value into irrational symbols.This focus on the power of the symbolic is further developed by Williamson (1986) who argues that advertisements function at an unconscious level at which the consumer is unable to resist latent meaning transfer. More recent post-Marxist analyses have weakened their deterministic stance and recognized that â€Å"the meanings and uses of products cannot be entirely controlled† (Williamson, 1986).However, hegemony still exists, but now depends on affective gratifications provided by mass-mediated popular culture where â€Å"everyday life in amusement society proceeds within a dialectic of enfeeblement and empowerment† (Langman, 1992). From a post-structuralist perspective limited freedom is allowed to the individual through consumption choices: â€Å"for most members of contemporary society individual freedom, if available at all, comes in the form of consumer freedom† through which the individual must take responsibility to invent and consciously create a self-identity (Bauman, 1988).Through the â€Å"new existentialism† (Laermans, 1993) consumers can exercise the freedom to create new meanings for goods through their own idiosyncratic performance of everyday life (de Certeau, 1984). This freedom can be used for collective and individual resistance against the imposed meanings of the dominant cultural categories, particularly through the choice of style and the use of bricolage tactics (Fiske, 1987; Hebdige, 1979).A sustained argument for the active exercise of freedom through consumption is developed by Willis (1990), who characterizes the consumption choices of the young as the behaviour of â€Å"practical existentialists†. The young are seen as exercising choice through consumption-related symbolic creativity which operates via the concept of â€Å"grounded aesthetics†, a process which builds higher-level symbolic meaning structures from the mundane concrete experiences of everyday life.This allows the young a small creative space for making the received social world, to some ext ent, controllable by them. This process is very similar to the marginal â€Å"tactics† (de Certeau, 1984) by which the powerless make sense of consumption, and in relation to advertising would allow them some control over the meaning of a text, but not control over the agenda within which the text is constructed (Morley and Silverstone, 1990).This is a limited freedom where we â€Å"make our own spaces within the place of the other† (Fiske, 1989) but yet it is potentially liberating in that to escape from dominant meanings is to construct our own subjectivity (Condit, 1989), and can therefore be conceptualized as â€Å"authentic† existential choice, rejecting the â€Å"bad faith† of accepting the dominant consumption meanings as inevitable or unproblematic (Sartre, 1969). Advertisements can be seen as cultural products in their own right, and Existential young people consume them independently of the products and have a creative consumption and symbolic r elationship with them.Although Willis (1990) sees advertising as irrational desire manipulative to some extent, he emphasises the scope for individual choice and creativity in meaning and identity construction, as individuals use advertising images as personal and social resources. These are invested with specific 291 meanings anchored in everyday life, via the process of grounded aesthetics, which are then used to construct or maintain personal and social identities. These creative practices are particularly prevalent amongst young people of â€Å"Generation X† (O’Donohoe, 1994; Ritson and Elliott, 1995b).The construction of social identity through â€Å"styles of consumption† is referred to in terms of lifestyle membership of â€Å"neo-tribes† by Bauman (1990), where one may join the tribe by buying and displaying tribe-specific paraphernalia. The neo-tribe is informal, without authority and only requires acceptance of the obligation to take on the iden tity-symbols of the tribe. The consumer may thus exercise the freedom to choose social groupings through existential consumption.The exercise of choice through consumption now flows across national boundaries in a global cultural economy through the operation of advertising â€Å"mediascapes† which are image-centred strips of reality which offer the consumer a series of elements â€Å"out of which scripts can be formed of imagined lives, their own as well as those of others living in other places† (Appaduri, 1990). If aspects of advertising imagery can be appropriated at will by â€Å"practical existentialists† then they may, as Baudrillard (1983) suggests, â€Å"live everywhere already in an ‘aesthetic’ hallucination of reality†, in which the real and the simulated are indistinguishable.However, the extent to which, in a â€Å"mediacratic† age, advertising reflects reality or actually creates it is problematic. Are the â€Å"practica l existentialists† using advertising or is it really using them? Schudson (1984) suggests that advertising is â€Å"capitalist realist art† and that although it does not have a monopoly of the symbolic marketplace, different social groups are differentially vulnerable especially during transitional states of their lives. This form of art idealizes the consumer and portrays as normative, special moments of satisfaction.It â€Å"reminds us of beautiful moments in our own lives or it pictures magical moments we would like to experience† (Schudson, 1984). This suggests that young people in particular, who are at a transitional state in their lives, may be subject to excessive influence by â€Å"buying-in† to advertising’s depiction of a false reality. In contrast, young people may be exercising (limited) freedom in their use of advertising as a cultural commodity for â€Å"even as the market makes its profits, it supplies some of the materials for alte rnative or oppositional symbolic work† (Willis, 1990).This dichotomy between creativity and constraint (Moores, 1993) in the context of advertising is represented by the problematic of hegemony, which sets parameters on the freedom to construct meaning (Ang, 1990). Hegemony European Journal of Marketing 31,3/4 292 does not dominate from outside but is a â€Å"thick texture† which interlaces resistance and submission, opposition and complicity (Martin-Barbero, 1988) and which therefore poses difficult problems for ethnographic analysis to unpack.Structuration theory (Giddens, 1984) offers a solution to the dualism of structure versus agency, by positing that the â€Å"structural properties of social systems are both medium and outcome of the practices they recursively organise†. Thus the consumption of advertising can be both an active and creative practice yet is carried out within constraints imposed by material situation and ideological hegemony. Desire, irrati onality and choice Desire develops from physical need through a growing awareness of the existential choice between a desire to have and a desire to be, desire being defined by absence or lack of being (Sartre, 1969).Lacan’s identification of language as the symbolic order which develops from the pre-verbal imaginary order accompanied by increasing anxiety about the self has been reframed by Kristeva (1980) as the two orders of the semiotic and the symbolic. The imaginary/semiotic order is unconscious whilst the symbolic order is rational, but there is potential for â€Å"slippage† between the two orders of meaning, with a regression to the unconscious and irrational order of the imaginary where desire for the unattainable comfort of the perfect mother holds sway.The gap between the fantasy world of consumption day-dreams of perfect pleasure and the disappointments of reality is the basic motivation for Campbell’s (1987) â€Å"autonomous imaginative hedonismâ⠂¬  which results in limitless wants and a permanent state of frustration. The limited resources of the individual consumer must therefore require choices to be made, choices of which desire to feed and which to deny, which meanings to consume and which to reject or avoid. This vital act of consumer choice may not be to choose that which is most pleasing, but to reject that which is most distasteful.Bourdieu (1984) suggests tastes that â€Å"when they have to be justified, they are asserted purely negatively, by the refusal of other tastes†. We may define ourselves not by what we like, but by what we dislike, and it is strong negative emotional reactions to the consumption practices of others that may structure our social categories. This â€Å"refusal of tastes† seems to operate at the level of the imaginary/semiotic and be driven by pre-verbal inchoate emotion. While consumption may often operate at the level of the imaginary/semiotic or day-dream, it can also have â€Å"real† effects in facilitating the construction of self-identity (Falk, 1994).Phenomenological descriptions of the everyday consumer experiences of women (Thompson et al. , 1990) have surfaced a dominant theme of being in control/being out of control which reflected an anxiety about not buying in the â€Å"right† way, so that women felt guilty when they perceived themselves as not making rational purchase decisions. However, they nevertheless admitted to making purchases in a â€Å"dreamlike† way when they were â€Å"captivated† by a product. In this situation, to act in a self-perceived rrational fashion, to surrender to the symbolic, is itself an authentic existential Existential act of creating meaning through choice, the choice to be irrational. consumption and But to what extent is existential consumption the conscious exercise of irrational desire freedom through choice as idealized by existentialism? Certainly there are severe limits to the fr eedom contained in consumption choices due to individuals having unequal access to the necessary resources, so existential 293 consumption may only exist for some people in some societies.However, the lived experience described by consumers (Elliott and Ritson, 1995; Thompson et al. , 1990) conveys a strong sense of Sartre’s â€Å"engagement† even if not at the level of decisional seriousness discussed by Kierkegaard (Macquarrie, 1972). Marxists may dismiss an individual’s claim to be making conscious choices about consumption as â€Å"false consciousness† but this is to deny the â€Å"situated meaningfulness of everyday consumer experiences† (Thompson et al. , 1990). The freedom of practical existentialism is authentic, even if it is constrained by inequalities in the economic system and by ideological hegemony.The emotion-laden experiences of the consumer – irrational, incoherent and driven by unconscious desires; constrained by the market economy yet obtaining limited freedom through existential consumption and symbolic creativity; able to build a DIY self through consumption yet suffering an expansion of inadequacy through advertising – this constructs the subjectivity of the postmodern consumer with whom postmodern marketing (Brown, 1995) must deal. References Ang, I. (1985), Watching Dallas: Soap Opera and the Melodramatic Imagination, Methuen, London. 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